Rust mulakatlari, dilin benzersiz sahiplik sistemi, garbage collector olmadan bellek yonetimi ve guvenli es zamanli kod yazma becerisini degerlendirmektedir. Bu rehber, sahiplik temellerinden ileri duzey async ve es zamanlilik kaliplarina kadar temel sorulari kapsamaktadir. Mulakatcilar, Rust'in bellek guvenligi garantilerini gosteren aciklamalara deger vermektedir. Derleyicinin hatalari derleme zamaninda nasil onlediginin aciklanmasi fark yaratmaktadir. ## Sahiplik ve Odunc Alma ### Soru 1: Rust'in sahiplik sisteminin aciklanmasi Sahiplik, Rust'in garbage collector olmadan bellek yonetimini mumkun kilan ve derleme zamaninda bellek guvenligini garanti eden merkezi kavramidir. ```rust // ownership_basics.rs // The three fundamental rules of ownership fn main() { // Rule 1: Each value has a single owner let s1 = String::from("hello"); // s1 is the owner // Rule 2: Only one variable can own a value at a time let s2 = s1; // s1 is MOVED to s2 // println!("{}", s1); // ERROR: s1 is no longer valid println!("{}", s2); // OK: s2 is now the owner // Rule 3: When the owner goes out of scope, the value is dropped { let s3 = String::from("world"); // s3 is valid here } // s3 goes out of scope, memory is automatically freed // Copy types: simple types are copied, not moved let x = 5; let y = x; // x is COPIED, not moved println!("x = {}, y = {}", x, y); // Both are valid } // Move in action with functions fn take_ownership(s: String) { // s takes ownership of the String println!("{}", s); } // s is dropped here, memory freed fn makes_copy(i: i32) { // i is a copy of the argument println!("{}", i); } // i goes out of scope, nothing special (Copy type) fn ownership_with_functions() { let s = String::from("hello"); take_ownership(s); // s is moved into the function // println!("{}", s); // ERROR: s is no longer valid let x = 5; makes_copy(x); // x is copied println!("{}", x); // OK: x is still valid } ``` Sahiplik, yaygin bellek hatalarini ortadan kaldirmaktadir: use-after-free, double-free ve bellek sizintilari. Derleyici bu ozellikleri derleme zamaninda garanti etmektedir. ### Soru 2: Degismez ve degisebilir odunc alma arasindaki fark Odunc alma, sahiplik almadan bir degeri kullanmaya olanak tanir ve veri yarislarini onleyen kati kurallara sahiptir. ```rust // borrowing_rules.rs // Immutable and mutable references fn main() { let mut s = String::from("hello"); // IMMUTABLE REFERENCES (&T) // Can coexist in unlimited numbers let r1 = &s; // immutable reference let r2 = &s; // another immutable reference println!("{} and {}", r1, r2); // OK // MUTABLE REFERENCE (&mut T) // Only one at a time, and no simultaneous immutable references let r3 = &mut s; // mutable reference // let r4 = &s; // ERROR: cannot have both immutable and mutable // let r5 = &mut s; // ERROR: only one mutable reference allowed r3.push_str(" world"); println!("{}", r3); // Reference scopes are limited to their last use let r6 = &s; // OK because r3 is no longer used println!("{}", r6); } // Practical example: modifying a struct struct User { name: String, age: u32, } impl User { // &self: read-only access fn get_name(&self) -> &str { &self.name } // &mut self: modification access fn set_name(&mut self, name: String) { self.name = name; } // self: takes ownership (consumes the instance) fn into_name(self) -> String { self.name // The User instance no longer exists after this } } fn borrowing_with_structs() { let mut user = User { name: String::from("Alice"), age: 30, }; // Reading println!("Name: {}", user.get_name()); // Modifying user.set_name(String::from("Bob")); // Consuming let name = user.into_name(); // user.age; // ERROR: user has been consumed } ``` Bu kurallar, derleme zamaninda veri yarislarinin yoklugunu garanti etmektedir. Baska hicbir dil, performans fedakarliginda bulunmadan bu garantiyi sunmamaktadir. Rust 2018'den bu yana derleyici, bir referansin artik kullanilmadigini daha hassas bir sekilde belirlemek icin NLL (Non-Lexical Lifetimes) kullanmakta ve bu da daha fazla esneklik saglamaktadir. ### Soru 3: Yasam sureleri ve ne zaman isaretlenmeli Yasam sureleri, derleyiciye referanslarin ne kadar sure gecerli oldugunu bildiren ve sarkan referanslari onleyen isaretlemelerdir. ```rust // lifetimes.rs // Understanding and annotating lifetimes // ERROR: dangling reference // fn dangling() -> &String { // let s = String::from("hello"); // &s // s is dropped at function end, reference invalid // } // The compiler often infers lifetimes automatically fn first_word(s: &str) -> &str { // Elided lifetime: compiler understands the return // has the same lifetime as the input match s.find(' ') { Some(i) => &s[..i], None => s, } } // Explicit annotation needed with multiple references fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { // 'a means: the return lives at least as long // as the shorter of the two inputs if x.len() > y.len() { x } else { y } } fn lifetime_example() { let string1 = String::from("long string"); let result; { let string2 = String::from("xyz"); result = longest(&string1, &string2); println!("Longest: {}", result); // OK here } // println!("{}", result); // ERROR: string2 is dropped } // Lifetimes in structs struct ImportantExcerpt<'a> { part: &'a str, // Struct cannot outlive part } impl<'a> ImportantExcerpt<'a> { // Method returning a reference with the same lifetime fn level(&self) -> i32 { 3 } // Elided lifetime for &self returning a new reference fn announce_and_return_part(&self, announcement: &str) -> &str { println!("Attention: {}", announcement); self.part // Returns with lifetime 'a } } // Static lifetime: lives for the entire program duration fn static_lifetime() { let s: &'static str = "hello"; // Stored in the binary // Constants have implicit 'static lifetime const MAX_POINTS: u32 = 100_000; } // Combining lifetimes and generics fn longest_with_announcement<'a, T>( x: &'a str, y: &'a str, ann: T, ) -> &'a str where T: std::fmt::Display, { println!("Announcement: {}", ann); if x.len() > y.len() { x } else { y } } ``` Yasam sureleri derleme zamaninda dogrulanmaktadir. Kod derlendiyse, referanslarin gecerli oldugu garanti edilmis demektir. ## Trait ve Jenerikler ### Soru 4: Rust'ta trait nasil calisir Trait'ler, farkli tipler arasinda paylasilan davranisi tanimlamaktadir. Arayuzlere benzer ancak ek ozelliklere sahiptir. ```rust // traits_basics.rs // Defining and implementing traits // Trait definition trait Summary { // Required method (no body) fn summarize(&self) -> String; // Method with default implementation fn summarize_author(&self) -> String { String::from("(Anonymous)") } // Default method that calls a required method fn full_summary(&self) -> String { format!("By {} - {}", self.summarize_author(), self.summarize()) } } // Implementation for different types struct NewsArticle { headline: String, location: String, author: String, content: String, } impl Summary for NewsArticle { fn summarize(&self) -> String { format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location) } fn summarize_author(&self) -> String { format!("@{}", self.author) } } struct Tweet { username: String, content: String, reply: bool, retweet: bool, } impl Summary for Tweet { fn summarize(&self) -> String { format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content) } } // Trait bounds: constraining generics fn notify(item: &T) { println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize()); } // Alternative syntax with where fn notify_verbose(item: &T) where T: Summary, { println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize()); } // Multiple trait bounds fn notify_complex(item: &T) { println!("{}", item); } // Return a type that implements a trait fn create_summarizable() -> impl Summary { Tweet { username: String::from("rust_lang"), content: String::from("Rust 2026 is amazing!"), reply: false, retweet: false, } } ``` Trait'ler, sinif miras almadan polimorfizm saglamakta ve kalitim yerine bileskimi tercih etmektedir. ### Soru 5: Statik ve dinamik jeneriklik arasindaki fark Rust, polimorfizm icin iki yaklasim sunmaktadir: monomorfizasyon (statik) ve trait nesneleri (dinamik). ```rust // static_vs_dynamic_dispatch.rs // Static vs dynamic dispatch trait Animal { fn speak(&self) -> String; fn name(&self) -> &str; } struct Dog { name: String } struct Cat { name: String } impl Animal for Dog { fn speak(&self) -> String { String::from("Woof!") } fn name(&self) -> &str { &self.name } } impl Animal for Cat { fn speak(&self) -> String { String::from("Meow!") } fn name(&self) -> &str { &self.name } } // STATIC DISPATCH (monomorphization) // Compiler generates a version for each concrete type fn make_speak_static(animal: &T) { // At compile time, becomes make_speak_Dog and make_speak_Cat println!("{} says {}", animal.name(), animal.speak()); } // Advantages: inlining possible, no runtime overhead // Disadvantages: larger binary, type must be known at compile time // DYNAMIC DISPATCH (trait objects) // Uses a vtable to resolve methods at runtime fn make_speak_dynamic(animal: &dyn Animal) { // Resolved via a pointer table (vtable) at runtime println!("{} says {}", animal.name(), animal.speak()); } // Advantages: can store different types, smaller binary // Disadvantages: indirection overhead, no inlining fn main() { let dog = Dog { name: String::from("Rex") }; let cat = Cat { name: String::from("Whiskers") }; // Static: type is known at compile time make_speak_static(&dog); make_speak_static(&cat); // Dynamic: type is resolved at runtime make_speak_dynamic(&dog); make_speak_dynamic(&cat); // Heterogeneous collection (requires dynamic dispatch) let animals: Vec> = vec![ Box::new(Dog { name: String::from("Buddy") }), Box::new(Cat { name: String::from("Luna") }), ]; for animal in animals.iter() { println!("{} says {}", animal.name(), animal.speak()); } } // Object safety: not all traits can become trait objects trait ObjectSafe { fn method(&self); // No Self in return type // No generic parameters } // NOT object safe (cannot be dyn NotObjectSafe) trait NotObjectSafe { fn create() -> Self; // Self in return fn generic(&self, t: T); // Generic } ``` Statik dispatch performans icin tercih edilmektedir. Dinamik dispatch, heterojen koleksiyonlar ve esneklik icin faydalidir. ## Hata Yonetimi ### Soru 6: Result ve Option ile hata yonetimi Rust'ta istisna mekanizmasi bulunmamaktadir. Hata yonetimi `Result` ve `Option` tipleri ile oruntu eslestirme uzerinden yapilmaktadir. ```rust // error_handling.rs // Idiomatic error handling in Rust use std::fs::File; use std::io::{self, Read}; // Option: presence or absence of a value fn find_user(id: u32) -> Option { match id { 1 => Some(String::from("Alice")), 2 => Some(String::from("Bob")), _ => None, // No user found } } // Result: success or error fn divide(a: f64, b: f64) -> Result { if b == 0.0 { Err(String::from("Division by zero")) } else { Ok(a / b) } } fn option_combinators() { let user = find_user(1); // Pattern matching match user { Some(name) => println!("Found: {}", name), None => println!("Not found"), } // unwrap_or: default value let name = find_user(99).unwrap_or(String::from("Unknown")); // map: transform the value if present let upper = find_user(1).map(|n| n.to_uppercase()); // and_then (flatMap): chain Options let first_char = find_user(1).and_then(|n| n.chars().next()); // if let: simplified pattern matching if let Some(name) = find_user(2) { println!("User 2 is {}", name); } } fn result_handling() -> Result<(), Box> { // The ? operator propagates errors automatically let result = divide(10.0, 2.0)?; println!("Result: {}", result); // Equivalent to: // let result = match divide(10.0, 2.0) { // Ok(v) => v, // Err(e) => return Err(e.into()), // }; Ok(()) } // File reading with error propagation fn read_file_contents(path: &str) -> Result { let mut file = File::open(path)?; // Propagates error if failure let mut contents = String::new(); file.read_to_string(&mut contents)?; Ok(contents) } // Custom errors #[derive(Debug)] enum AppError { IoError(io::Error), ParseError(String), NotFound(String), } impl std::fmt::Display for AppError { fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result { match self { AppError::IoError(e) => write!(f, "IO error: {}", e), AppError::ParseError(s) => write!(f, "Parse error: {}", s), AppError::NotFound(s) => write!(f, "Not found: {}", s), } } } impl std::error::Error for AppError {} // Automatic conversion with From impl From for AppError { fn from(error: io::Error) -> Self { AppError::IoError(error) } } fn complex_operation() -> Result { let contents = std::fs::read_to_string("config.txt")?; // Auto-convert if contents.is_empty() { return Err(AppError::NotFound(String::from("Config is empty"))); } Ok(contents) } ``` `?` operatoru kodu ozetli tutarken acik hata yonetimini zorunlu kilmaktadir. Calisma zamaninda surpriz yaratmamaktadir. `unwrap()` ve `expect()`, deger None veya Err ise panic olusturmaktadir. Bunlar prototipleme veya basarisizligin imkansiz oldugu durumlar icin saklanmalidir. Productionda `?` ile yayilim veya kombinatorler tercih edilmelidir. ### Soru 7: thiserror ile ozel hatalar olusturma `thiserror` kutuphanesi, ergonomik ozel hatalarin olusturulmasini kolaylastirmaktadir. ```rust // custom_errors.rs // Custom errors with thiserror use thiserror::Error; // Error definition with derive macro #[derive(Error, Debug)] pub enum DataStoreError { #[error("connection failed: {0}")] ConnectionFailed(String), #[error("query failed: {query}")] QueryFailed { query: String, source: std::io::Error }, #[error("record not found: id={id}")] NotFound { id: u64 }, #[error("invalid data: {0}")] InvalidData(#[from] serde_json::Error), #[error(transparent)] // Delegates Display to source Other(#[from] anyhow::Error), } // Implementation with rich context pub struct DataStore { connection_string: String, } impl DataStore { pub fn connect(conn_str: &str) -> Result { if conn_str.is_empty() { return Err(DataStoreError::ConnectionFailed( "Empty connection string".into() )); } Ok(Self { connection_string: conn_str.to_string() }) } pub fn get_record(&self, id: u64) -> Result { // Query simulation if id == 0 { return Err(DataStoreError::NotFound { id }); } Ok(Record { id, data: format!("Record {}", id) }) } } pub struct Record { pub id: u64, pub data: String, } // Usage with anyhow for applications use anyhow::{Context, Result}; fn application_code() -> Result<()> { let store = DataStore::connect("postgres://localhost/db") .context("Failed to connect to database")?; let record = store.get_record(42) .context("Failed to fetch user record")?; println!("Got: {}", record.data); Ok(()) } // Pattern: converting errors with context fn read_config() -> Result { let contents = std::fs::read_to_string("config.toml") .context("Failed to read config file")?; let config: Config = toml::from_str(&contents) .context("Failed to parse config file")?; Ok(config) } #[derive(Debug)] struct Config { // ... } ``` `thiserror` kutuphaneler icin idealdir (tipli hatalar), `anyhow` ise uygulamalar icin uygundur (maksimum esneklik). ## Akilli Isaretciler ### Soru 8: Box, Rc, Arc ve RefCell aciklamasi Akilli isaretciler yigin bellegini yonetmekte ve basit sahipligin izin vermedigi kaliplari mumkun kilmaktadir. ```rust // smart_pointers.rs // Main smart pointers in Rust use std::rc::Rc; use std::sync::Arc; use std::cell::RefCell; // BOX: heap allocation // Used for: recursive types, large types, trait objects fn box_example() { // Simple heap allocation let b = Box::new(5); println!("b = {}", b); // Recursive type (impossible without Box) #[derive(Debug)] enum List { Cons(i32, Box), Nil, } let list = List::Cons(1, Box::new(List::Cons(2, Box::new(List::Cons(3, Box::new(List::Nil)))))); println!("{:?}", list); } // RC: Reference Counting (single-threaded) // Multiple owners for the same data fn rc_example() { let data = Rc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]); // Clone increments the reference counter let data_clone1 = Rc::clone(&data); // count = 2 let data_clone2 = Rc::clone(&data); // count = 3 println!("Reference count: {}", Rc::strong_count(&data)); // 3 // Each clone can read the data println!("data_clone1: {:?}", data_clone1); // Data is freed when the last Rc is dropped } // ARC: Atomic Reference Counting (thread-safe) // Like Rc but usable across threads fn arc_example() { use std::thread; let data = Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]); let mut handles = vec![]; for i in 0..3 { let data_clone = Arc::clone(&data); let handle = thread::spawn(move || { // Each thread has its own Arc println!("Thread {}: {:?}", i, data_clone); }); handles.push(handle); } for handle in handles { handle.join().unwrap(); } } // REFCELL: Interior Mutability // Allows mutation even with an immutable reference fn refcell_example() { let data = RefCell::new(5); // borrow() returns an immutable reference println!("Value: {}", *data.borrow()); // borrow_mut() returns a mutable reference *data.borrow_mut() += 1; println!("After mutation: {}", *data.borrow()); // Borrowing rules are checked at RUNTIME // Panics if rules are violated // let r1 = data.borrow(); // let r2 = data.borrow_mut(); // PANIC: already borrowed } // Common combination: Rc> // Multiple owners with possible mutation fn rc_refcell_example() { #[derive(Debug)] struct Node { value: i32, children: Vec>>, } let node1 = Rc::new(RefCell::new(Node { value: 1, children: vec![], })); let node2 = Rc::new(RefCell::new(Node { value: 2, children: vec![Rc::clone(&node1)], // node1 is child of node2 })); // Modify node1 from anywhere node1.borrow_mut().value = 10; println!("node2 child value: {}", node2.borrow().children[0].borrow().value); // 10 } // For threads: Arc> or Arc> fn arc_mutex_example() { use std::sync::Mutex; use std::thread; let counter = Arc::new(Mutex::new(0)); let mut handles = vec![]; for _ in 0..10 { let counter = Arc::clone(&counter); let handle = thread::spawn(move || { let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); *num += 1; }); handles.push(handle); } for handle in handles { handle.join().unwrap(); } println!("Final count: {}", *counter.lock().unwrap()); // 10 } ``` Baglama gore dogru akilli isaretci secilmelidir: basit yigin icin `Box`, paylasim icin `Rc`/`Arc`, ic degisebilirlik icin `RefCell`/`Mutex`. ## Es Zamanlilik ### Soru 9: Rust is parcacigi guvenligini nasil garanti eder Rust'in tip sistemi, `Send` ve `Sync` trait'leri araciligiyla derleme zamaninda veri yarislarini onlemektedir. ```rust // thread_safety.rs // Concurrent safety guarantees use std::thread; use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex, mpsc}; // SEND: a type can be transferred to another thread // SYNC: a type can be shared between threads via references // Most types are Send and Sync automatically // Exceptions: Rc (not Send/Sync), RefCell (not Sync), raw pointers fn send_example() { let data = vec![1, 2, 3]; // Vec is Send, so it can be moved to another thread let handle = thread::spawn(move || { println!("Data in thread: {:?}", data); }); handle.join().unwrap(); } // The compiler prevents concurrency errors fn compile_time_safety() { // This would NOT compile: // let data = std::rc::Rc::new(5); // thread::spawn(move || { // println!("{}", data); // ERROR: Rc is not Send // }); // Solution: use Arc let data = Arc::new(5); let data_clone = Arc::clone(&data); thread::spawn(move || { println!("{}", data_clone); // OK: Arc is Send }); } // Mutex for thread-safe shared mutation fn mutex_pattern() { let counter = Arc::new(Mutex::new(0)); let mut handles = vec![]; for _ in 0..10 { let counter = Arc::clone(&counter); let handle = thread::spawn(move || { // lock() blocks until exclusive access is obtained let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); *num += 1; // MutexGuard is dropped here, releasing the lock }); handles.push(handle); } for handle in handles { handle.join().unwrap(); } println!("Result: {}", *counter.lock().unwrap()); } // RwLock for multiple reads / exclusive write fn rwlock_example() { use std::sync::RwLock; let data = Arc::new(RwLock::new(vec![1, 2, 3])); let mut handles = vec![]; // Multiple simultaneous readers for i in 0..3 { let data = Arc::clone(&data); handles.push(thread::spawn(move || { let read = data.read().unwrap(); println!("Reader {}: {:?}", i, *read); })); } // Only one writer at a time { let data = Arc::clone(&data); handles.push(thread::spawn(move || { let mut write = data.write().unwrap(); write.push(4); println!("Writer added 4"); })); } for handle in handles { handle.join().unwrap(); } } // Channels for inter-thread communication fn channel_example() { let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel(); // Multi-producer, single-consumer // Clone the sender for multiple producers let tx1 = tx.clone(); thread::spawn(move || { tx1.send("from thread 1").unwrap(); }); thread::spawn(move || { tx.send("from thread 2").unwrap(); }); // Receive messages for received in rx { println!("Got: {}", received); } } ``` "Korkusuz es zamanlilik": kod derlendiyse, veri yarisi yoktur. Derleyici ilk savunma hattini olusturmaktadir. Bir is parcacigi Mutex'i tutarken panic yaparsa, Mutex "zehirlenmis" olmaktadir. Sonraki `lock()` cagrilari, `into_inner()` ile kurtarilabilecek bir hata dondurmektedir. ### Soru 10: Rust'ta async/await nasil calisir Rust'ta async, dile gomulu bir runtime olmadan sifir maliyetli Future'lara dayanmaktadir. ```rust // async_await.rs // Asynchronous programming in Rust use tokio::time::{sleep, Duration}; // async fn returns a Future that must be executed async fn fetch_data(url: &str) -> Result { // await suspends execution without blocking the thread let response = reqwest::get(url).await?; let body = response.text().await?; Ok(body) } // Futures are lazy: nothing executes without await or poll async fn lazy_example() { let future = async { println!("This won't print yet"); }; // Nothing happened future.await; // Now it executes } // Parallel execution of futures async fn parallel_execution() { // join! executes multiple futures in parallel let (result1, result2) = tokio::join!( fetch_data("https://api.example.com/1"), fetch_data("https://api.example.com/2"), ); println!("Results: {:?}, {:?}", result1, result2); } // select! for the first completed future async fn race_example() { tokio::select! { result = fetch_data("https://api1.example.com") => { println!("API 1 responded first: {:?}", result); } result = fetch_data("https://api2.example.com") => { println!("API 2 responded first: {:?}", result); } _ = sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)) => { println!("Timeout!"); } } } // Streams: asynchronous iterators use tokio_stream::StreamExt; async fn stream_example() { let mut stream = tokio_stream::iter(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]); while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { println!("Got: {}", value); } } // Spawn for background tasks async fn spawn_tasks() { let handle = tokio::spawn(async { sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; "Task completed" }); println!("Task spawned, doing other work..."); let result = handle.await.unwrap(); println!("Result: {}", result); } // Entry point with tokio #[tokio::main] async fn main() { // The tokio runtime executes futures parallel_execution().await; } // Alternative: multi-threaded or single-threaded runtime #[tokio::main(flavor = "current_thread")] async fn main_single_thread() { // Everything runs on a single thread } #[tokio::main(flavor = "multi_thread", worker_threads = 4)] async fn main_multi_thread() { // Pool of 4 worker threads } ``` Rust async "kendi runtime'ini getir" prensibiyle calismaktadir: tokio, async-std veya smol. Bu esneklik, kullanim durumuna ozel optimizasyonlara olanak tanmaktadir. ## Ileri Duzey Kalipler ### Soru 11: Rust'ta Builder kalibinin aciklanmasi Builder kalibi, birden fazla opsiyonel alana sahip karmasik yapilarin olusturulmasi icin Rust'ta idiomatiktir. ```rust // builder_pattern.rs // Idiomatic Builder pattern in Rust #[derive(Debug, Clone)] pub struct Server { host: String, port: u16, max_connections: usize, timeout_seconds: u64, tls_enabled: bool, tls_cert_path: Option, } // Builder with consuming approach (ownership) #[derive(Default)] pub struct ServerBuilder { host: String, port: u16, max_connections: usize, timeout_seconds: u64, tls_enabled: bool, tls_cert_path: Option, } impl ServerBuilder { pub fn new() -> Self { Self { host: String::from("localhost"), port: 8080, max_connections: 100, timeout_seconds: 30, tls_enabled: false, tls_cert_path: None, } } // Each method takes self and returns Self for chaining pub fn host(mut self, host: impl Into) -> Self { self.host = host.into(); self } pub fn port(mut self, port: u16) -> Self { self.port = port; self } pub fn max_connections(mut self, max: usize) -> Self { self.max_connections = max; self } pub fn timeout(mut self, seconds: u64) -> Self { self.timeout_seconds = seconds; self } pub fn enable_tls(mut self, cert_path: impl Into) -> Self { self.tls_enabled = true; self.tls_cert_path = Some(cert_path.into()); self } // build() consumes the builder and creates the final structure pub fn build(self) -> Result { if self.tls_enabled && self.tls_cert_path.is_none() { return Err("TLS enabled but no certificate path provided".into()); } Ok(Server { host: self.host, port: self.port, max_connections: self.max_connections, timeout_seconds: self.timeout_seconds, tls_enabled: self.tls_enabled, tls_cert_path: self.tls_cert_path, }) } } // Fluent usage fn create_server() -> Result { ServerBuilder::new() .host("0.0.0.0") .port(443) .max_connections(1000) .timeout(60) .enable_tls("/etc/ssl/cert.pem") .build() } // Alternative with derive macro (typed-builder crate) // #[derive(TypedBuilder)] // pub struct Config { // #[builder(default = "localhost".to_string())] // host: String, // #[builder(default = 8080)] // port: u16, // } // Pattern with type-level validation (typestate pattern) pub struct Unvalidated; pub struct Validated; pub struct Request { url: String, method: String, headers: Vec<(String, String)>, _state: std::marker::PhantomData, } impl Request { pub fn new(url: &str) -> Self { Self { url: url.to_string(), method: "GET".to_string(), headers: vec![], _state: std::marker::PhantomData, } } pub fn method(mut self, method: &str) -> Self { self.method = method.to_string(); self } // validate() changes the state type pub fn validate(self) -> Result, String> { if self.url.is_empty() { return Err("URL cannot be empty".into()); } Ok(Request { url: self.url, method: self.method, headers: self.headers, _state: std::marker::PhantomData, }) } } impl Request { // send() is only available on validated requests pub async fn send(self) -> Result { // Implementation... todo!() } } struct Response; ``` Typestate kalibi, derleme zamaninda belirli islemlerin yalnizca dogru durumda cagirilabilecegini garanti etmektedir. ### Soru 12: Harici tipler icin trait uygulamasi "Yetim kurali" harici bir trait'in harici bir tip icin uygulanmasini engellemektedir, ancak cozumler bulunmaktadir. ```rust // newtype_pattern.rs // The Newtype pattern to work around the orphan rule use std::fmt; // ORPHAN RULE: cannot implement Display (std) for Vec (std) // impl fmt::Display for Vec { ... } // ERROR // SOLUTION 1: Newtype wrapper struct Wrapper(Vec); impl fmt::Display for Wrapper { fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", ")) } } fn newtype_example() { let w = Wrapper(vec![ String::from("hello"), String::from("world"), ]); println!("{}", w); // [hello, world] } // Transparent access with Deref use std::ops::Deref; impl Deref for Wrapper { type Target = Vec; fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target { &self.0 } } fn deref_example() { let w = Wrapper(vec![String::from("test")]); println!("Length: {}", w.len()); // Calls Vec::len via Deref } // SOLUTION 2: Extension trait (to add methods) trait VecExt { fn first_or_default(&self) -> Option<&T>; } impl VecExt for Vec { fn first_or_default(&self) -> Option<&T> { self.first() } } fn extension_trait_example() { let v = vec![1, 2, 3]; println!("First: {:?}", v.first_or_default()); } // Newtype with domain semantics #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)] struct Email(String); impl Email { pub fn new(email: &str) -> Result { if email.contains('@') && email.contains('.') { Ok(Self(email.to_string())) } else { Err("Invalid email format") } } pub fn as_str(&self) -> &str { &self.0 } } impl fmt::Display for Email { fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { write!(f, "{}", self.0) } } #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)] struct UserId(u64); impl UserId { pub fn new(id: u64) -> Self { Self(id) } } // Newtypes add type safety without runtime overhead fn process_user(id: UserId, email: Email) { println!("Processing user {} with email {}", id.0, email); } fn type_safety_example() { let id = UserId::new(42); let email = Email::new("user@example.com").unwrap(); process_user(id, email); // This would not compile: // process_user(email, id); // Types reversed // process_user(UserId::new(42), "string"); // String instead of Email } ``` Newtype'lar, ayni bellek temsili garantisi sayesinde sifir calisma zamani maliyetine sahiptir. ### Soru 13: Prosedural makrolar nasil kullanilir Prosedural makrolar, derleme zamaninda kod uretmeye olanak tanmakta, ozel derive'lar gibi islevler sunmaktadir. ```rust // procedural_macros.rs // Understanding procedural macros // Proc macros are defined in a separate crate with proc-macro = true // Crate: my_derive (Cargo.toml: proc-macro = true) use proc_macro::TokenStream; use quote::quote; use syn::{parse_macro_input, DeriveInput}; // DERIVE MACRO: #[derive(MyTrait)] #[proc_macro_derive(MyDebug)] pub fn my_debug_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { // Parse input as a type definition let input = parse_macro_input!(input as DeriveInput); let name = input.ident; // Generate implementation code let expanded = quote! { impl std::fmt::Debug for #name { fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result { write!(f, stringify!(#name)) } } }; TokenStream::from(expanded) } // ATTRIBUTE MACRO: #[my_attribute] #[proc_macro_attribute] pub fn route(attr: TokenStream, item: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { // attr contains the attribute arguments // item contains the annotated element (function, struct, etc.) let method_path = attr.to_string(); // "GET, /users" let input = parse_macro_input!(item as syn::ItemFn); let fn_name = &input.sig.ident; let expanded = quote! { #input // Additionally generated code fn register_#fn_name() { println!("Registered route: {}", #method_path); } }; TokenStream::from(expanded) } // FUNCTION-LIKE MACRO: my_macro!(...) #[proc_macro] pub fn make_answer(_input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { "fn answer() -> u32 { 42 }".parse().unwrap() } // --- Usage in client code --- // Derive macro #[derive(MyDebug)] struct Point { x: i32, y: i32, } // Attribute macro #[route("GET", "/users")] fn get_users() -> Vec { vec![] } // Function-like macro make_answer!(); // Generates fn answer() -> u32 { 42 } fn main() { let p = Point { x: 1, y: 2 }; println!("{:?}", p); // Uses our MyDebug println!("Answer: {}", answer()); // 42 } struct User; ``` Prosedural makrolar tekrarlayan kod icin guclu bir aractir: serializasyon, web yonlendirmesi, dogrulama vb. ## Bellek Guvenligi ve Unsafe ### Soru 14: Unsafe ne zaman ve nasil kullanilir `unsafe` blogu, dusuk seviyeli kod icin belirli derleyici kontrollerini atlamaya olanak tanmaktadir. ```rust // unsafe_rust.rs // Understanding unsafe and its guarantees // The 5 superpowers of unsafe: // 1. Dereference raw pointers // 2. Call unsafe functions // 3. Access/modify mutable static variables // 4. Implement unsafe traits // 5. Access union fields // RAW POINTERS fn raw_pointers() { let mut num = 5; // Creating raw pointers is safe let r1 = &num as *const i32; let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; // Dereferencing requires unsafe unsafe { println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); *r2 = 10; println!("r2 is: {}", *r2); } } // UNSAFE FUNCTION // The function guarantees safety IF preconditions are met unsafe fn dangerous() { // Code that assumes the caller verified invariants } fn call_dangerous() { // Must be in an unsafe block unsafe { dangerous(); } } // SAFE ABSTRACTION over unsafe code fn split_at_mut(values: &mut [i32], mid: usize) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { let len = values.len(); let ptr = values.as_mut_ptr(); assert!(mid <= len); // Runtime check unsafe { // We know the two slices don't overlap ( std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr, mid), std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr.add(mid), len - mid), ) } } // FFI: calling C code extern "C" { fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; } fn call_c_function() { unsafe { println!("Absolute value: {}", abs(-3)); } } // Export a function for C #[no_mangle] pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() { println!("Called from C!"); } // MUTABLE STATIC static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; fn increment_counter() { unsafe { COUNTER += 1; println!("COUNTER: {}", COUNTER); } } // UNSAFE TRAIT unsafe trait Dangerous { // Implementers guarantee invariants } unsafe impl Dangerous for i32 { // Implementer asserts respecting the trait's invariants } // Practical example: structure with internal pointer pub struct MyVec { ptr: *mut T, len: usize, capacity: usize, } impl MyVec { pub fn new() -> Self { Self { ptr: std::ptr::null_mut(), len: 0, capacity: 0, } } pub fn push(&mut self, value: T) { if self.len == self.capacity { self.grow(); } unsafe { std::ptr::write(self.ptr.add(self.len), value); } self.len += 1; } fn grow(&mut self) { // Unsafe allocation/reallocation... } } impl Drop for MyVec { fn drop(&mut self) { unsafe { // Properly free memory for i in 0..self.len { std::ptr::drop_in_place(self.ptr.add(i)); } if self.capacity > 0 { let layout = std::alloc::Layout::array::(self.capacity).unwrap(); std::alloc::dealloc(self.ptr as *mut u8, layout); } } } } ``` Unsafe kod yuzeyini en aza indirmek gerekmektedir. Unsafe kod, degismezlikleri garanti eden guvenli soyutlamalar icine kapsullenmelidir. Unsafe kod, cevresindeki guvenli bellegi asla bozamamalidir. ### Soru 15: Borrow checker nasil calisir Borrow checker, sahiplik ve odunc alma kurallarini dogrulayan Rust derleyicisinin kalbini olusturmaktadir. ```rust // borrow_checker.rs // Understanding how the borrow checker works fn borrow_checker_basics() { let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3]; // RULE 1: Either multiple immutable references or one mutable let r1 = &v; let r2 = &v; println!("{:?} {:?}", r1, r2); // OK: multiple immutable references // From here, r1 and r2 are no longer used (NLL) let r3 = &mut v; // OK thanks to Non-Lexical Lifetimes r3.push(4); } // The borrow checker tracks lifetimes fn lifetime_tracking() { let mut data = String::from("hello"); let slice = &data[..]; // Immutable borrow starts // data.push_str(" world"); // ERROR: cannot mutate during borrow println!("{}", slice); // Last use of slice data.push_str(" world"); // OK: borrow ended } // Common problems and solutions mod common_patterns { // Problem: borrowing two mutable fields struct Data { field1: Vec, field2: Vec, } fn problem(data: &mut Data) { // This sometimes doesn't compile directly: // let f1 = &mut data.field1; // let f2 = &mut data.field2; // Solution: destructuring let Data { field1, field2 } = data; field1.push(1); field2.push(2); } // Problem: iterate and modify fn iterate_and_modify() { let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; // Does not compile: // for &x in &v { // if x % 2 == 0 { // v.push(x * 2); // ERROR: borrowed by iterator // } // } // Solution 1: collect indices first let to_add: Vec = v.iter() .filter(|&&x| x % 2 == 0) .map(|&x| x * 2) .collect(); v.extend(to_add); // Solution 2: use explicit indices let len = v.len(); for i in 0..len { if v[i] % 2 == 0 { let new_val = v[i] * 2; v.push(new_val); } } } // Problem: self-referential struct // struct SelfRef { // data: String, // slice: &str, // Reference to data - IMPOSSIBLE // } // Solution: use indices or crates like ouroboros struct SafeSelfRef { data: String, slice_start: usize, slice_end: usize, } impl SafeSelfRef { fn get_slice(&self) -> &str { &self.data[self.slice_start..self.slice_end] } } } // Patterns to work around limitations mod workarounds { use std::cell::RefCell; // Interior mutability when borrow checker is too restrictive struct Graph { nodes: RefCell>, } struct Node { value: i32, } impl Graph { fn add_node(&self, value: i32) { // Mutation possible despite &self self.nodes.borrow_mut().push(Node { value }); } fn get_node(&self, index: usize) -> Option { self.nodes.borrow().get(index).map(|n| n.value) } } } ``` Borrow checker ilk basta kisitlayici gorunebilmektedir, ancak bu kisitlamalar diger dillerde bulunan tum hata kategorilerini ortadan kaldirmaktadir. ## Sonuc Rust mulakatlari, sahiplik sisteminin derinlemesine anlasilmasini, bellek guvenligi garantilerini ve veri yarislari olmadan es zamanli kod yazma becerisini degerlendirmektedir. Bu kavramlarin ustunlugu, Rust'in benzersiz avantajlarindan yararlanabilen gelistiricileri ayirmaktadir. ### Hazirlik Kontrol Listesi - Sahiplik, odunc alma ve uc temel kuralin anlasilmasi - Yasam surelerinin ne zaman ve nasil isaretleneceginin bilinmesi - Trait ve statik ile dinamik dispatch arasindaki farkin kavranmasi - Result ve Option ile idiomatik hata yonetimi - Baglama gore dogru akilli isaretcinin secilmesi - Arc, Mutex ve kanallar ile es zamanli kod yazilmasi - async/await ve tokio gibi runtime'larin anlasilmasi - Unsafe'in ne zaman ve nasil guvenli kullanilacaginin bilinmesi Rust mulakatlarina hazirlik, dilin benzersiz sahiplik kavramlariyla pratik yapmayi gerektirmektedir. Exercism uzerinde alistirmalar, kisisel projeler ve Rust ekosistemine katki, en zorlu teknik mulakatlar icin bu bilgiyi pekistirmektedir.